公元前3500—前2000年前后，苏美尔人在伊拉克南部肥沃的冲击平原上创造了全世界最古老的文明。苏美尔人是城市、文字、车轮等多项重大发明的首创者，属于苏美尔人的那个古代世界就像一面镜子，烛照着我们今天的城市生活和文明世界。问题在于，我们头脑中想象出来的苏美尔人和他们的世界，是否就是真的客观发生过的历史？

本书作者保罗·柯林斯揭示了在过去150年中，各国学者如何利用出土自伊拉克和叙利亚的各类考古文献资料，构建出了一套以苏美尔人为题的“知识”。无论过去还是现在，苏美尔人其实从未被我们简单地“遗忘”过，正如他们从未被简单地“发现”过一样。每次“发现”都只是那些试图“发现”他们的人利用自己手中的材料，对苏美尔人的重新建构而已。从古到今，这样的建构重复了很多次。

保罗·柯林斯（Paul Collins） 牛津大学阿什莫林博物馆古代近东馆馆长，主要研究方向为古代美索不达米亚和伊朗考古、艺术历史。已出版著作包括《亚述王宫雕塑》（Assyrian Palace Sculptures）（2008）、《高山和低地——古代伊朗和美索不达米亚》（Mountains and Lowlands：Ancient Iran and Mesopotamia）（2016）。

曹磊 文学硕士，作家和翻译，喜马拉雅《谦道》文稿顾问，《北京纪事》特约撰稿，已出版的译作和著作有《1945》《战士之路》《从北京到曼德勒》等，其中《六千零一夜：关于古埃及的知识考古》入选第十五届“文津图书奖”推荐图书。

第1章 缘起

1 Jeremy A.Black et al.，‘The Sumerian King List：Translation’，www.etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk，accessed 13 July 2018.

2 Piotr Michałowski，‘History as Charter：Some Observations on the Sumerian King List’，Journal of the American Oriental Society，ciii（1983），pp.237-48.

3 Christina Riggs，Egypt：Lost Civilizations（London，2017）.

4 Frederick N.Bohrer，Orientalism and Visual Culture：Imagining Mesopotamia in Nineteenth-century Europe（Cambridge，2003）；Michael Seymour，Babylon：Legend，History and the Ancient City（London and New York，2014）.

5 Edward Said，Orientalism（New York，1978）.

6 Samuel N.Kramer，The Sumerians：Their History，Culture，and Character（Chicago，IL，1963），p.4.

7 Richard Miles，Ancient Worlds：The Search for the Origins of Western Civilization（London，2010），p.3.

8 Ibid.，p.6.

9 Charles Tripp，A History of Iraq（Cambridge，2002），p.8.

10 Marika Sardar，‘Shah ‘Abbas and the Arts of Isfahan’，www.metmuseum.org，3 October 2003.

11 Pietro della Valle，George Havers and Thomas Roe，The Travels of Sig.Pietro della Valle，a Noble Roman，into East-India and Arabia Deserta in Which，the Several Countries，Together with the Customs，Manners，Traffique，and Rites Both Religious and Civil，of Those Oriental Princes and Nations，Are Faithfully Described：In Familiar Letters to his Friend Signior Mario Schipano：Whereunto Is Added a Relation of Sir Thomas Roe’s Voyage into the East-Indies（London，1665），p.262.

12 Irving Finkel，‘The Decipherment of Achaemenid Cuneiform’，in Forgotten Empire：The World of Ancient Persia，ed.J.Curtis and N.Tallis（London，2005），p.25.

13 Marcus N.Adler，The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela：Critical Text，Translation and Commentary（New York，1907），pp.33-4，42.

14 William Dalrymple，The Anarchy：The Relentless Rise of the East India Company（London and Oxford，2019）.

15 St John Simpson，‘From Persepolis to Babylon and Nineveh：The Rediscovery of the Ancient Near East’，in Enlightenment：Discovering the World in the Eighteenth Century，ed.K.Sloan（London，2003），pp.192-201.

16 Robert Ker Porter，Travels in Georgia，Persia，Armenia，Ancient Babylon（London，1822），vol.ii，pp.407-8.

17 William Kennett Loftus，Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana（New York，1857），p.116.

18 Peter T.Daniels，‘Rawlinson，Henry ii.Contributions to Assyriology and Iranian Studies’，www.iranicaonline.org，15 December 2009.

19 Kevin J.Cathcart，‘The Earliest Contributions to the Decipherment of Sumerian and Akkadian’，Cuneiform Digital Library Journal，i（2011），pp.1-12.

20 EdwardHincks，‘An Attempt to Ascertain the Number，Names，and Powers of the Letters of the Hieroglyphic，or Ancient Egyptian Alphabet；Grounded on the Establishment of a New Principle in the Use of Phonetic Characters.Postscript’，Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy，xxi（1848），p.131.

21 Quoted in Cathcart，‘The Earliest Contributions’，p.4.

第2章 苏美尔语的问题

1 Debbie Challis，The Archaeology of Race：The Eugenic Ideas of Francis Galton and Flinders Petrie（London，2013）.

2 Zainab Bahrani，‘Race and Ethnicity in Mesopotamian Antiquity’，World Archaeology，xxxviii/1（2006），pp48-59.

3 Jules Oppert，‘On Babylon；And On the Discovery of the Cuneiform Characters and the Mode of Interpreting Them’，Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire，viii（1856），p.103.

4 Edward Said，Orientalism（New York，1978），p.42.

5 Netanel Anor，“Joseph Halévy，Racial Scholarship and the ‘Sumerian Problem’”，Philological Encounters，ii（2017），pp.321-45；Jerrold S.Cooper，‘Posing the Sumerian Question：Race and Scholarship in the Early History of Assyriology’，Aula Orientalis，ix（1991），pp.47-66.

6 Joseph Halévy，‘Observations Critiques sur les Prétendus Touraniens de la Babylonie’，Journal Asiatique，vii/3（1874），pp.461-536.

7 David Bindman，Ape to Apollo：Aesthetics and the Idea of Race in the 18th Century（New York，2002）.

8 Otis T.Mason，‘Anthropology in Paris during the Exposition of 1889’，American Anthropologist，iii（1890），p.32.

9 Richard Zettler，‘The University of Pennsylvania 19th Century Excavations at Nippur’，www.ottomanlands.com，accessed 13 December 2018.

10 Edgar J.Banks，Bismya；or，the Lost City of Adab（New York and London，1912）.

11 Karen Wilson，with Jacob Lauinger，Monica Louise Phillips，Benjamin Studevent-Hickman and Aage Westenholz，Bismaya：Recovering the Lost City of Adab（Chicago，IL，2012）.

12 Banks，The Lost City，p.188.

13 Edgar J.Banks，‘The Bismya Temple’，American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures，xx（1905），p.34.

14 Edgar J.Banks，‘The Statue of the Sumerian King David’，Scientific American，xciii/8（1905），p.137.

15 Edgar J.Banks，‘The Head of the Oldest Statue of a Semite（Illustrated）’，Open Court，vi/6（1906），pp.378-81.

16 Quoted in Wilson，Bismaya，p.18.

17 Paul Collins and Charles Tripp，eds，Gertrude Bell and Iraq：A Life and Legacy（London，2017），p.7.

18 Gertrude Bell，letter to her father，31 March 1914，https：//gertrudebell.ncl.ac.uk，accessed 1 September 2018.

19 Jerrold S.Cooper，‘Sumer，Sumerisch’，Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie，xiii（2012），p.292.For arguments against，see Ran Zadok，‘The Origin of the Name Shinar’，Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie，lxxiv/2（2009），pp.240-44.

20 André Parrot，Sumerian Art（New York and Toronto，1970），pp.5-6.

第3章 入侵，占领和所有权

1 Stephen Langdon，‘Sumerian Origins and Racial Characteristics’，Archaeologia，lxx（1920），pp.149，150.

2 Henry R.Hall and C.Leonard Woolley，Ur Excavations，vol.i：Al’-Ubaid（Oxford，1927），preface.

3 Henry R.Hall，A Season’s Work at Ur：al-’Ubaid，Abu Shahrain（Eridu），and Elsewhere（London，1930），p.vii.

4 Ernest A.Budge，A Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities（London，1922），p.57.

5 Ibid，p.4.

6 Ibid.

7 ‘The Covenant of the League of Nations’，https：//avalon.law.yale.edu，accessed 23 January 2019.

8 Hall，A Season’s Work，p.73.

9 Magnus T.Bernhardsson，Reclaiming a Plundered Past：Archaeology and Nation Building in Modern Iraq（Austin，TX，2005），pp.111-29.

10 British Museum Central Archives，ce32/26/15，letter from Gordon to Kenyon，10 August 1923.

11 Hall，A Season’s Work，p.106.

12 Gertrude Bell，letter to her father，1 March 1923，https：//gertrudebell.ncl.ac.uk，accessed 1 September 2018.

13 Gertrude Bell，letter to her stepmother，3 March 1926，https：//gertrudebell.ncl.ac.uk，accessed 1 September 2018.

14 C.Leonard Woolley，Ur Excavations，vol.ii：The Royal Cemetery（London，1934），p.35.

15 Pedro Azara and Marc Marín，‘The Golden Image of Archaeology before the Second World War’，in From Ancient to Modern：Archaeology and Aesthetics，ed.J.Y.Chi and P.Azara（Princeton，NJ，and Oxford，2015），p.66.

16 C.Leonard Woolley，Excavations at Ur；A Record of Twelve Years’Work（London，1954），p.66.

17 Ibid.，p.67.

18 Léon Legrain，‘The Boudoir of Queen Shubad’，Museum Journal，xx（1929），p.238.

19 Ibid.

20 Jean M.Evans，The Lives of Sumerian Sculpture：An Archaeology of the Early Dynastic Temple（Cambridge，2012），p.2.

21 Gianni Marchesi，‘Who Was Buried in the Royal Tombs of Ur？The Epigraphic and Textual Data’，Orientalia，lxxiii（2004），pp.153-97.

22 Woolley，Ur Excavations，vol.ii，p.267.

23 Ibid.，p.266.

24 David G.Hogarth，‘Report of the Keeper of Antiquities for the Year 1922’，in Report of the Visitors of the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology（Oxford，1922），p.9.

25 Stephen Langdon，The Weld-Blundell Collection，vol.ii：Historical Inscriptions，Containing Principally the Chronological Prism，W-B.444（Oxford，1923）.

26 P.R.S.Moorey，Kish Excavations，1923-1933（Oxford，1978），pp.12-13.

27 Gertrude Bell，letter to her father，24 March 1924，https：//gertrudebell.ncl.ac.uk，accessed 1 September 2018.

28 David C.Davies，‘Unearthing the Past at Kish’，Scientific American，cxxxviii/3（1928），pp.216-18.

29 Arthur Keith，‘Report on the Human Remains’，in H.R.Hall and C.Leonard Woolley，Al-’Ubaid：A Report on the Work Carried Outat Al-’Ubaid for the British Museum in 1919 and for the Joint Expedition in 1922-3（London，1927），p.216.

30 Stephen Langdon，‘A New Factor in the Problem of Sumerian Origins’，Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland，iii（1931），p.593.

31 C.Leonard Woolley，The Sumerians（Oxford，1928），p.6.

32 Ibid.，pp.13，49.

33 Debbie Challis，‘Skull Triangles：Flinders Petrie，Race Theory and Biometrics’，Bulletin of the History of Archaeology，xxvi/1（2016），www.archaeologybulletin.org.

34 William M.F.Petrie，‘Early Man in Egypt’，Man，xxv（1925），p.129.

35 D.E.Derry，‘The Dynastic Race in Egypt’，Journal of Egyptian Archaeology，xlii（1956），pp.80-86.

36 Stephen Langdon，‘The Aryan Origin of the Alphabet：A Sumer-Aryan Dictionary by L.A.Waddell [Review]’，Scottish Historical Review，xxv/97（1927），p.53.

37 Quoted by the publisher on the title page of Laurence A.Waddell，Egyptian Civilization：Its Sumerian Origin and Real Chronology（London，1930）.

第4章 第一座城市

1 Henri Frankfort，Archaeology and the Sumerian Problem（Chicago，IL，1932），pp.viii，1-5，48-51.

2 Henri Frankfort，Sculpture of the Third Millennium BC from Tell Asmar and Khafajah（Chicago，IL，1939）.

3 For a full discussion，see Jean Evans，The Lives of Sumerian Sculpture：An Archaeology of the Early Dynastic Temple（Cambridge，2012），pp.76-106.

4 Ibid.，pp.131-42；Harriet Crawford，“‘Nearer My God to Thee？’The Relationship between Man and his Gods in Third-millennium BC Mesopotamia”，in Of Pots and Pans：Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria Presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday，ed.L.al-Gailani Werr et al.（London，2002），pp.47-53.

5 Henry Moore，‘Mesopotamian Art’，Listener，5 June 1935，pp.944-6.

6 Evans，The Lives，pp.61-9.

7 Pedro Azara，‘Sumerian Art and Modern Art from Gudea to Miró’，Ancient Near East Today，v/6（2017），www.asor.org.

8 Jean M.Evans，‘The Square Temple at Tell Asmar and the Construction of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia，ca.2900-2350 BCE’，American Journal of Archaeology，cxi（2007），pp.599-632；Evans，The Lives，pp.61-9.

9 Juliette Desplat，‘Decolonising Archaeology in Iraq？’，https：//blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk，27 June 2017.

10 Thorkild Jacobsen，‘The Assumed Conflict between Sumerians and Semites in Early Mesopotamian History’，Journal of the American Oriental Society，lviii/4（1939），p.495.

11 Thorkild Jacobsen，The Sumerian King List（Chicago，IL，1939），p.167.

12 Thorkild Jacobsen，‘Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia’，Journal of Near Eastern Studies，ii/3（1943），pp.159-72.

13 Thorkild Jacobsen，‘Early Political Development in Mesopotamia’，Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie，lii/1（1957），pp.91-140.

14 Mario Liverani，trans.，Imagining Babylon：The Modern Story of an Ancient City（Boston，ma，and Berlin，2016），p.139.

15 Seth Richardson，‘Before Things Worked：A “Low-power” Model of Early Mesopotamia’，in Ancient States and Infrastructural Power：Europe，Asia，and America，ed.C.Ando and S.Richardson（Philadelphia，pa，2017），pp.17-62.

16 Liverani，Imagining Babylon，pp.104-6.

17 Benjamin R.Foster，‘A New Look at the Sumerian Temple-state’，Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient，xxiv/3（1981），pp.225-41.

18 Seton Lloyd，Fuad Safar and H.Frankfort，‘Tell Uqair：Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate of Antiquities in 1940 and 1941’，Journal of Near Eastern Studies，ii/2（1943），pp.131-58.

19 Naji al-Asil，quoted in James F.Goode，‘Archaeology and Politics in Iraq’，in Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II：A Cultural Biography，ed.A.Cohen and S.E.Kangas（Hanover，NH，and London，2010），p.114.

20 Goode，‘Archaeology and Politics’，p.114.

21 Kanan Makiya and Samir Khalil，The Monument：Art and Vulgarity in Saddam Hussein’s Iraq（London，2004），p.81.

22 Ahmed Naji，Under the Palm Trees：Modern Iraqi Art with Mohamed Makiya and Jewad Selim（New York，2019）.

23 Samuel N.Kramer，Sumerian Mythology：A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium BC（Philadelphia，pa，1944）.

24 Samuel N.Kramer，The Sacred Marriage Rite：Aspects of Faith，Myth and Ritual in Ancient Sumer（Bloomington，IN，1969），p.49.

25 Sidney Smith，‘Assyriological Notes：A Babylonian Fertility Cult’，Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland，iv（1928），pp.849-75.

26 Elizabeth Douglas Van Buren，‘The Sacred Marriage in Early Times in Mesopotamia’，Orientalia，xiii（1944），p.15.

27 Naomi F.Miller，Philip H.Jones and Holly Pittman，‘Sign and Image：Representations of Plants on the Warka Vase of Early Mesopotamia’，Origini，xxxix（2016），pp.53-73.

28 Irene J.Winter，‘Representing Abundance：A Visual Dimension of the Agrarian State’，in Settlement and Society：Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams，ed.E.C.Stone（Los Angeles，CA，2006），pp.117-38.

29 Jerrold Cooper，‘Sacred Marriage and Popular Cult in Early Mesopotamia’，in Official Cult and Popular Religion in the Ancient Near East，ed.E.Matsushima（Heidelberg，1993），pp.81-96.

30 Jerrold Cooper，‘Sex and the Temple’，in Temple im Alten Orient，ed.K.Kaniuth et al.（Wiesbaden，2013），pp.49-57.

31 Irene J.Winter，‘Women in Public：The Disk of Enheduanna，the Beginning of the Office of en-Priestess，and the Weight of Visual Evidence’，in La Femme dans le proche orient antique.Proceedings of the Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale，Paris，July，1986，ed.J.M.Durand（Paris，1987），pp.189-201.

32 Jeremy A.Black et al.，‘The Exaltation of Inana：Translation’，www.etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk，accessed 13 July 2018.

33 Marta Weigle，‘Women as Verbal Artists：Reclaiming the Sisters of Enheduanna’，Frontiers：A Journal of Women Studies，iii/3（1978），pp.1-9.

34 Jerrold S.Cooper，‘Review of Inanna：Queen of Heaven and Earth by Diane Wolkstein and Samuel Noah Kramer’，Biblical Archaeologist，xl/3（1984），pp.188-9.

35 Betty De Shong Meador，Inanna Lady of Largest Heart：Poems of the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna（Austin，TX，2000）.

36 Ignace J.Gelb，Thoughts about Ibla（Malibu，CA，1977）.

37 Robert D.Biggs and Donald P.Hansen，Inscriptions from Tell Abu Salabikh（Chicago，IL，1974）.

38 Ignace J.Gelb，‘Ancient Society and Economy’，in The Oriental Institute 1983-1984 Annual Report（Chicago，IL，1985），pp.39-40.

39 Benno Landsberger，Three Essays on the Sumerians（Los Angeles，CA，1974）.Arkadiusz Sołtysiak，“Physical Anthropology and the ‘Sumerian Problem’”，Studies in Historical Anthropology，iv（2006），pp.145-58.

40 Gonzalo Rubio，“On the Alleged ‘Pre-Sumerian Substratum’”，Journal of Cuneiform Studies，li（1999），pp.1-16.

41 Josif S.Shklovskii and Carl Sagan，Intelligent Life in the Universe（San Francisco，CA，1966），p.461.

42 ‘Has NASA Accidentally Found an Ancient Sumerian Statue on the Surface of Mars？’，Ancient Code，www.ancient-code.com，accessed 15 November 2018.

43 Katie Forster，‘Iraqi Transport Minister Claims First Airport Was Built 7，000 Years Ago in Iraq by Ancient Sumerians’，www.independent.co.uk，1 October 2016.

44 Nicole Brisch，‘Anunna（Anunnaku，Anunnaki）（A Group of Gods）’，Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses，www.oracc.museum.upenn.edu，2016.

45 Sarah E.Bond，‘Pseudoarchaeology and the Racism behind Ancient Aliens’，Hyperallergic，https：//hyperallergic.com，accessed 13 November 2018.

第5章 最早的文字

1 Jerrold S.Cooper，‘Was Uruk the First Sumerian City？’，in Not Only History：Proceedings of the Conference in Honor of Mario Liverani Held in Sapienza-Università di Roma，Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità，20-21 April 2009，ed.G.Bartoloni and M.G.Biga（Winona Lake，IN，2016），p.56.

2 James F.Goode，‘Archaeology and Politics in Iraq’，in Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal ii：A Cultural Biography，ed.A.Cohen and S.E.Kangas（Hanover，NH，and London，2010），p.117.

3 Ibid.，p.119.

4 John Curtis et al.，‘An Assessment of Archaeological Sites in June 2008：An Iraqi-British Project’，Iraq，lxx（2008），p.221.

5 Neil Brodie，‘The Plunder of Iraq’s Archaeological Heritage，1991-2005，and the London Antiquities Trade’，in Archaeology，Cultural Heritage and the Antiquities Trade，ed.N.Brodie et al.（Gainesville，FL，2006），p.206.

6 Jean Evans，The Lives of Sumerian Sculpture：An Archaeology of the Early Dynastic Temple（Cambridge，2012），p.40.

7 Heather Sharp，“Iraq’s ‘Devastated’ Marsh Arabs”，http：//news.bbc.co.uk，3 March 2003.

8 Robert McCormick Adams，The Evolution of Urban Society：Early Mesopotamia and Prehispanic Mexico（New Brunswick，NJ，and London，1966）；Robert McCormick Adams，Heartland of Cities：Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates（Chicago，IL，1981）.

9 Jennifer R.Pournelle，‘Physical Geography’，in The Sumerian World，ed.H.Crawford（London，2012），p.19.

10 Mark Altaweel et al.，‘New Insights on the Role of Environmental Dynamics Shaping Southern Mesopotamia：From the Pre-Ubaid to the Early Islamic Period’，Iraq，lxxxi（December 2019），pp.23-46.

11 Pournell，‘Physical Geography’，p.19.

12 Ibid.，p.23.

13 Joan Oates，‘Ur and Eridu：The Prehistory’，Iraq，xxii（1960），pp.44-50.

14 Elizabeth C.Stone and Paul Zimansky，‘The Tapestry of Power in a Mesopotamian City’，Scientific American，xv/1（2005），pp.62-7.

15 Joan Oates et al.，‘Early Mesopotamian Urbanism：A New View from the North’，Antiquity，lxxxi/313（2007），pp.585-600.

16 Augusta McMahon and Adam Stone，‘The Edge of the City：Urban Growth and Burial Space in 4th Millennium BC Mesopotamia’，Origini，xxxv（2013），pp.83-109.

17 Augusta McMahon，‘State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict：Battle’s Aftermath at Late Chalcolithic Tell Brak’，in Preludes to Urbanism：The Late Chalcolithic of Mesopotamia，ed.A.McMahon and H.Crawford（Cambridge，2015），pp.175-88.

18 Guillermo Algaze，Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization：The Evolution of an Urban Landscape（Chicago，IL，2008）.

19 Gil Stein，‘Economic Dominance，Conquest，or Interaction among Equals？Theoretical Models for Understanding Culture Contact in Early Near Eastern Complex Societies’，in Proceedings of the 4th Iranian Archaeologists Conference，Tehran University，ed.H.Azizi，M.Khanipoor and R.Naseri（Tehran，2014），p.56.

20 Roger Matthews and Amy Richardson，‘Cultic Resilience and Inter-city Engagement at the Dawn of Urban History：Prehistoric Mesopotamia and the “City Seals”，3200-2750 BC’，World Archaeology，24 April 2019，http：// centaur.reading.ac.uk.

21 Ignace J.Gelb，Piotr Steinkeller and Robert M.Whiting，Jr，Earliest Land Tenure Systems in the Near East：Ancient Kudurrus（Chicago，IL，1991），pp.39-43.

22 Giacomo Benati，“New Light on the Early Archives from Ur：The ‘Ancient Room’ Tablet Hoard”，in Proceedings of the 9th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East：June 9-13，2014，University of Basel，ed.R.A.Stucky，O.Kaelin and H.-P.Mathys（Wiesbaden，2016），pp.13-30.

23 Jeremy A.Black et al.，‘The Kesh Temple Hymn：Translation’，http：//etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk（1998-2006），lines 31-4 and 106-26.

24 Jerrold S.Cooper，Preseargonic Inscriptions（New Haven，CT，1986），pp.22-3.

25 Jeremy A.Black et al.，‘The Building of Ningirsu’s Temple（Gudea，Cylinder A and B）’，http：//etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk（1998-2006），lines 563-5.

26 Ibid.，lines 602-10.

27 Irene J.Winter，“After the Battle Is Over：The ‘Stele of the Vultures’ and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East”，Studies in the History of Art，xvi（1985），pp.11-32.

28 Pinhas Delougaz，Harold Hill and Seton Lloyd，Private Houses and Graves in the Diyala Region（Chicago，IL，1967），p.153.

29 Susan Pollock，Ancient Mesopotamia（Cambridge，1999），pp.123-34.

30 Andrew Cohen，Death Rituals，Ideology，and the Development of Early Mesopotamian Kingship：Toward a New Understanding of Iraq’s Royal Cemetery of Ur（Leiden，2005）.

31 Nicholas J.Postgate，Early Mesopotamia：Society and Economy at the Dawn of History（London，1992），p.99.

32 Augusta McMahon，‘Trash and Toilets in Mesopotamia：Sanitation and Early Urbanism’，ANE Today，iv/4（2016），www.asor.org.

33 Edward Ochsenschlager，Iraq’s Marsh Arabs in the Garden of Eden（Philadelphia，PA，2004），p.165.

34 Edward Ochsenschlager，‘Life on the Edge of the Marshes’，Expedition，XL/2（1998），p.29.

35 Jerrold S.Cooper，‘Sumer，Sumerisch’，Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie，xiii（2012），p.292.

36 Ibid.，p.293.

37 Joan Goodnick Westenholz，Legends of the Kings of Akkade（Winona Lake，IN，1997）.

38 Marc Van De Mieroop，A History of the Ancient Near East ca.3000-323 BC（Malden，MA，and Oxford，2015），p.89.

39 Jacob L.Dahl，‘The Proto-Elamite Writing System’，in The Elamite World，ed.J.Álvarez-Mon，G.P.Basello and Y.Wicks（London and New York，2018），pp.383-96.

40 Javier Álvarez-Mon，‘Elam，Iran’s First Empire’，in A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East，ed.D.T Potts（Oxford，2012），p.741.

41 Daniel T.Potts，The Archaeology of Elam：Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State（Cambridge，1999），p.89.

42 Donald P.Hansen，‘Art of the Royal Tombs of Ur：A Brief Interpretation’，in Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur，ed.R.L.Zettler and L.Horne（Philadelphia，PA，1998），pp.54-7.

43 Jerrold S.Cooper，‘Sumerian Literature and Sumerian Identity’，in Problems of Canonicity and Identity Formation in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia，ed.K.Ryholt and G.Barjamovic（Copenhagen，2016），pp.2-3.

44 Christopher Woods，‘Bilingualism，Scribal Learning，and the Death of Sumerian’，in Margins of Writing，Origins of Cultures，ed.S.L.Sanders（Chicago，IL，2006），pp.91-120；Gonzalo Rubio，‘From Sumer to Babylonia：Topics in the History of Southern Mesopotamia’，in Current Issues in the History of the Ancient Near East，ed.M.W.Chavalas（Claremont，CA，2007），pp.8-9.

45 Gonzalo Rubio，‘Šulgi and the Death of Sumerian’，in Studies in Sumerian Literature，ed.P.Michałowski and N.Veldhuis（Leiden，2006），pp.167-79.

46 Jeremy A.Black et al.，‘A Praise Poem of Shulgi（Shulgi B）：Translation’，http：//etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk，lines 209-10.

47 Ibid.，lines 4-5.

48 Ibid.，lines 14-15.

49 Piotr Michałowski，‘Epics，Hymns，and Letters’，www.personal.umich.edu，accessed 3 July 2019；Christopher Woods，‘Sons of the Sun：The Mythological Foundations of the First Dynasty of Uruk’，Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions，xii（2012），pp.78-96.

50 Jeremy A.Black et al.，‘Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven’，http：//etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk，lines 56-62.

51 Jeanny V.Canby，The‘Ur-Nammu’Stela（Philadelphia，PA，2006）.For the attribution to Shulgi，see Irene J.Winter，‘The Stela and the State：Monuments and Politics in Ancient Mesopotamia’，www.youtube.com，12 December 2016.

52 Jeremy A.Black et al.，‘The Lament for Sumer and Urim’，http：//etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk，lines 32-5.

53 Douglas R.Frayne，‘New Light on the Reign of Ishme-Dagan’，Zeitschrift für Assyriologie，lxxxviii（1998），pp.6-44.

54 Brigitte Lion，‘Literacy and Gender’，in The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture，ed.K.Radner and E.Robson（Oxford，2011），pp.98-100.

55 Gonzalo Rubio，‘Sumerian Literature’，in From an Antique Land，ed.C.S.Ehrlich（Lanham，MD，2009），pp.39-40.

56 Ibid.，pp.31-2.

57 Cooper，‘Sumerian Literature’，p.11.

第6章 回到原点

1 McGuire Gibson，‘Nippur，Sacred City of Enlil，Supreme God of Sumer and Akkad’，Al-Rafidan，xiv（1993），pp.1-18.

2 Michael Roaf，‘Survivals and Revivals in the Art of Ancient Mesopotamia’，in Proceedings of the First International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East，ed.P.Mattiae et al.（Rome，2000），pp.1447-62.

3 Barbara N.Porter，‘Ritual and Politics in Assyria：Neo-Assyrian Kanephoric Stelai for Babylonia’，in XAPIΣ：Essays in Honor of Sara A.Immerwahr，ed.A.P.Chapin（Princeton，NJ，2004），pp.259-74.

4 Natalie Naomi May，“‘I Read the Inscriptions from before the Flood...’Neo-Sumerian Influences in Ashurbanipal’s Royal Self-image”，in Time and History in the Ancient Near East：Proceedings of the 56th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Barcelona 26-30 July 2010，ed.L.Feliu et al.（Winona Lake，IN，2013），pp.199-210.

5 Alasdair Livingstone，‘Ashurbanipal：Literate or Not？’，Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie，xcvi（2007），p.100.

6 Zainab Bahrani，‘Archaeology and the Strategies of War’，in Cultural Cleansing in Iraq：Why Museums Were Looted，Libraries Burned and Academics Murdered，ed.R.W.Baker，S.T.Ismail and T.Y.Ismail（London，2010），pp.67-81.

7 Hiwa Shilani，‘British Museum Hands Over Recently Plundered Artifacts to Iraq’，www.kurdistan24.net，accessed 31 August 2019；Neil Brodie，‘The Market in Iraqi Antiquities 1980-2008’，in Organised Crime in Art and Antiquities，ed.S.Manacorda（Milan，2009），pp.63-74.

8 ‘The Ahwar of Southern Iraq：Refuge of Biodiversity and the Relict Landscape of the Mesopotamian Cities’，http：//whc.unesco.org，accessed 13 July 2019.

9 Hannah Lewis，‘Safina Projects on the Revival of Iraqi Watercraft Heritage’，www.blogs.ucl.ac.uk，11 June 2019.

10 Jerrold S.Cooper，“‘I Have Forgotten my Burden from Former Days!’ Forgetting the Sumerians in Ancient Iraq”，Journal of the American Oriental Society，cxxx/3（2010），p.331.

11 Ibid.，p.332.

12 Aubrey Baadsgaard et al.，‘Human Sacrifice and Intentional Corpse Preservation in the Royal Cemetery of Ur’，Antiquity，lxxxv（2011），pp.27-42.