简介： 能源是国民经济的命脉。长期以来，能源一直是中国经济发展中的热点和难点问题。随着国际能源格局的风云变幻，中国正面临着世界各国能源战略部署所带来的挑战，这是中国国民经济发展的一个瓶颈问题，也是对中国和平崛起的严峻考验。我们的邻国日本能源资源贫乏，但其从供给侧和需求侧两方面下功夫，很好地解决了能源安全问题，实现了经济腾飞和长期稳定发展。其中，日本的国家能源战略发挥了重要作用。战后日本的能源战略经历了“油主煤辅”的能源结构转型战略、替代石油战略、能源多元化战略、石油危机后的节能战略、石油储备战略、“3E”协调发展战略等几次重要的演变，特别是东日本大地震和福岛核电站事故发生后，日本的能源形势空前严峻，加之美国页岩气革命、日本可燃冰开发的突破性进展以及国际油价的暴跌，消极因素和积极因素交织在一起，使得日本不得不对能源战略进行重新调整。分析日本能源动向与能源战略转型，其经验教训可资中国借鉴。

简介： As the global energy market undergoes profound changes and international oil price stays at a record high，energy security is playing an increasingly important role in conditioning Sino-US relations，with bilateral frictions and conflicts over some energy-related regional issues continuing to exacerbate.The fact that a rising China is establishing itself as a major global player in the world energy market as well as in the global energy geo-political arena has been exerting considerable impact on the China-US relationship and global energy security at large.What has been observed demonstrates that energy security，as a new cause for conflicts，has apparently presented itself from the cyclic crises that characterize Sino-US relations.Energy Security has already rendered and will continue to render the complicated and unpredictable Sino-US relations even more so.Chiefly relevant to oil and gas，China's energy security has arisen from the structural deficiency of increasing demand and decreasing supply of clean energy.To ensure its energy security，China has，over the years，conducted a series of diplomatic maneuvers to seek overseas oil and gas in order to diversify its sources of energy.China's active energy diplomacy，as embodied by frequent visits to oil-rich developing countries by top Chinese leaders，converges around its energy strategy of“going out”，which has called world-wide attention and triggered hot debates among Western politicians and academics.Optimists hold that China's pursuit of energy security will help to get China more immersed in the international community，thus obliging China to shoulder greater responsibility in terms of its energy policy and international conduct.Other pessimist analysts argue that China's increasing demand for energy will pose a threat to the United States，a consumer power as thirsty for energy as China，and logically，competition and confrontation between the two countries over scarce energy resources are inevitable.Taking into account that energy security is an overarching and the most recent issue highly likely to effect Sino-US relations and that little systematic research has been made into it，this dissertation attempts to draw up a comprehensive analysis of how the issue of energy security will impact the stable development of Sino-US relations and the international energy security as a whole by examining the likelihood for China and the United States to run into conflicts over energy security，the differences and divergences that might prop up with regard to the formulation of energy security policies and related diplomatic measures on the part of both countries，the characteristic features of Sino-US energy relationship and the possibility for China and the United States to wage energy cooperation.Therefore，a study on this issue is of great academic value and immediate significance.The book analyses the many aspects concerning Sino-US energy relationship from a neutral and unbiased perspective so as to come up with a subjective conclusion.The book consists of an introduction and five parts.The Introduction raises the subject matter at issue，expounds its value for research，illustrates the present state of research into this subject at national and international levels，introduces differing views and conclusions on this issue at home and abroad and studies and compares the merits and demerits of these views and conclusions.Throughout the dissertation，energy security theory is given a salient position.Part One deals with China's energy security policies.The author first analyses the causes for China's energy insecurity and precedes to，applying the Western analytic methodology，look at the relationship between China's energy security perceptions and the actual formulation of its energy policies and detects the deficiency and flaws that exist with the Chinese energy security system.The conclusion is that China's energy security policies can be described as“incomprehensive”as well as“incomplete”，which，as a result，can not be defined as“intended”or“provocative”against the United States.Part Two made up of with chapters two，three and four，serves as a case study in which the strategic importance of energy resources in the Middle East，Africa and the Western Hemisphere to China's energy security and that of the United States and the impact of China's pursuit of energy in these regions on America's energy，economic and strategic interest are fully investigated.The investigations find that China's energy relationship with the aforementioned countries and regions typically is one of classic symbiotic relationships and is the logical development of energy interdependence in economic terms.Yet，in this process，China's pursuit of energy interest in these regions has caused competition with the United States and eventually posed a sort of threat to Washington's strategic goals and national interest，as is show-cased by the declining US influence both politically and diplomatically on such issues as Iran and the Sudan，hence giving rise to energy-related geopolitical conflicts between China and the US.Part Three gives an evaluation of the US energy security policies by outlining the historic development of the US energy security policy with a focus on the energy security policy of the Bush Administration.Emphasis is placed on the factors that regulate policy-making and models policy-making follow.The findings are that the US energy policy can be characterized as disaggregated and incoherent；that the US energy security policy has some positive effects on the global energy security but these effects can not be overrated；that the US energy security policy is generally compatible with but specifically contradictory to its overall foreign policy；that such incomplete compatibility is likely to cast some shadow on China's energy security interest in the long term；and that as a result，the competition and confrontation between China and the US over global energy security have a reason to get more intense.Part Four brings up a definition of the nature of Sino-US energy relationship.The definition is made on the basis of the structural competition of the market，energy security outlook，and the contradictions of each other's energy policies，geo-political frictions and limited bilateral energy cooperation.The definition goes that the nature of the Sino-US energy relationship is competitive although China's energy security policy has not yet posed a real threat to America's major part of national interest.This competition，though indirect and partial at the moment，sees a trend of going direct and full in the future.Under the condition where there is a lack of mutual political trust and a security cooperation mechanism，this trend could ignite more conflicts between the two countries over energy in years to come.Part Five makes prospective analyses by examining the possibility for both sides to run into larger-scale conflicts over energy，reviewing the energy policies of either of the countries，predicting possible readjustment of each other's energy-related foreign policy and exploring ways of formulating measures and creating mechanisms for bilateral energy cooperation.The analyses have come to the conclusion that despite the fact that Sino-US energy interaction is by no means a zero-sum game，the possibility for either side to readjust its energy security policy and energy-related foreign policy to adapt to the other side can be eliminated and that one can not be optimistic about the future of Sino-US energy cooperation because the difficulty for such cooperation is greater than expected.Yet，there seems to be a common ground for both sides to believe that cooperation better serves the interest of all than confrontation over energy，so strategists of both sides are expected to use their superb political wisdom and ability to work out effective measures and mechanisms to lead the bilateral energy cooperation to a smooth and stable road.Both China and the United States are the two biggest players on the international energy markets and will retain their potions as the worlds’largest oil importers far into the future.Therefore，political wisdom，institutional creation，compromise，transcendence of oil and political trust are the fundamentals needed to boost bilateral energy cooperation and build up substantial cooperation mechanisms.Once all the above are put in place as policy focus and policy objectives，they will，most probably，do good to the energy security interest of both countries and the international energy security as a whole and ultimately to the stable development of Sino-US relations.

简介： 进入21世纪，面对中国经济进入新一轮高速增长周期的能源“瓶颈”，中国已处于重新考虑能源发展战略的关键时期。要完成中国政府确立的“到2020年实现全面建设小康社会、2030年基本实现工业化和2050年实现现代化”的战略目标，必须坚持把能源作为经济社会发展的战略重点，对中国能源发展战略的构建依据和基本构想做较为系统、深入和全面的研究。制定中国能源发展战略，解决中国能源问题，要坚持从中国国情出发，尊重自然规律和经济规律，借鉴国际经验，走中国特色的能源发展之路。因此，中国必须以“提高效率，保护环境，保障供给，持续发展”作为中国能源发展战略的构建依据。根据“提高效率，保护环境，保障供给，持续发展”的中国能源发展战略的构建依据，从中国能源的供给和需求两个方面考虑，我们可以把未来四十年中国能源发展战略的基本构想作这样一种表述：节能效率优先，环境发展协调，内外开发并举，以煤炭为主体、电力为中心，油气和新能源全面发展，以能源的可持续发展和有效利用支持经济社会的可持续发展。之所以提出这样一种中国能源发展战略，就是要表明，解决中国能源问题的能源发展战略必须坚持从中国国情出发，尊重自然规律和经济规律，借鉴国际经验，充分利用国际国内两种资源和两个市场，走中国特色的能源发展之路。以能源的可持续发展和有效利用支持经济社会的可持续发展，是中国能源发展战略的目标。为了实现这一战略目标，需要进一步强调以下几点：一 要保障国家能源安全国家能源安全是指能源的经济安全（供应安全）和能源的生态安全（生产和消费安全）。前者是指国家生存与发展正常需求的能源供应保障的稳定程度；后者是指能源的生产和消费不应对人类自身的生存与发展环境构成任何大的威胁。能源安全是一个全球性问题。全球能源安全与否对全球经济兴衰关系重大，对全球生态环境影响极大。中国能源安全问题并不仅仅是能源供给总量与需求总量的矛盾，而且是由清洁能源需求刚性上升而供给严重不足所引发的结构性矛盾，这是中国能源安全问题中的主要矛盾。石油短缺是中国国内能源安全主要矛盾中的主要方面。中国能源安全不仅面临能源供应安全的紧缺风险，而且存在能源生态安全的很大压力。应对中国能源安全问题，必须保障能源供应，提高能源效率，节约能源资源，调整能源结构，改革能源体制，加强能源合作。应对石油安全挑战，中国应采取降低石油进口依赖，积极参与国际石油市场的竞争，加强国际石油领域的合作，确保国家石油安全的一整套措施和相应的对策。二 要调整和优化能源结构坚持以煤炭为主体、电力为中心，油气和新能源全面发展的战略，与20世纪80年代提出的以煤炭为主的能源战略思想绝不是简单的重复，它是当前中国能源发展的重中之重，其核心内容是调整和优化能源结构，实现能源供给和消费的多元化。要使中国的能源资源得到最有效的配置和利用，关键是要准确把握它们之间的比例关系，在未来有一个科学并趋向量化的使用标准。中国发展低碳经济，必须调整能源结构，建立低碳、清洁、高效、多元的能源结构，实施科学、绿色、低碳能源战略。加快能源结构调整，减少化石能源消耗，增加新能源与可再生清洁能源比重，实现能源结构多元化，减少二氧化碳（CO2）、二氧化硫（SO2）、氮氧化合物（NOx）及烟尘颗粒物的排放，对于中国发展低碳经济至关重要。加快推进中国能源结构的战略性调整，就是要在中国现代化建设进程中，减少对石化能源资源的需求与消费，降低对国际石油的依赖，降低煤电的比重，加快洁净煤技术的研究开发，继续发挥煤炭能源的作用，加快发展太阳能、风能与生物质能等新能源，大力发展水电与核电，充分支持海洋能、核聚变能等未来新能源的研究开发，建立中国可持续发展的能源体系。面对新能源与可再生能源发展现状，中国政府的当务之急就是要建立一套完整的新能源与可再生能源技术发展路线图，尽快整合现有产业资源，把现有资源、扶持政策体系及未来十多年的能源投资格局理顺，打造高效率的新能源与可再生能源发展的宽松环境，占领世界能源发展新高地。三 要把节约能源提高效率放在首位能源的开发和利用状况是衡量一个国家经济发展和科学技术水平的重要标志。发达国家都把提高能源利用效率作为其能源发展战略的重要目标和措施。解读中国能源发展战略，提高能源的开发和利用效率应摆在首位。中国在20世纪80年代提出的“节约与开发并重，把节约放在优先地位”的能源发展总方针，仍然是构建中国能源发展战略的重要依据。节约能源已经被专家视为与煤炭、石油、天然气和电力同等重要的“第五能源”。尽管在过去的三十年里，中国已在能源利用上取得了GDP翻两番而能源消费仅翻一番的令世界瞩目的成绩，但是，中国能源消耗仍然浪费严重，节能潜力巨大。能源效率低是制约中国经济社会发展的突出矛盾。不节约能源、提高能效，单纯依靠加大能源建设力度的办法无法从根本上解决中国能源问题。中国提高能源效率有着巨大的潜力，也是保障能源安全的当务之急。然而，要从根本上解决中国能源问题，必须选择资源节约型、质量效益型、科技先导型的发展方式，牢固树立和认真贯彻科学发展观，切实转变经济发展方式，坚定不移地走新型工业化道路。要根据中国以煤炭消费为主的能源结构向未来多元化的能源供应体系转变的变化特点，建立能源节约、低碳排放、经济高效的能源消费方式和经济发展方式。要大力调整产业结构、产品结构、技术结构和企业组织结构，依靠技术创新、体制创新和管理创新，在全国形成有利于节约能源的生产模式和消费模式，发展节能型经济，建设节能型社会，进一步提升国际竞争力，促进经济社会又好又快发展。四 要紧跟世界能源发展趋势，及时转变能源发展战略人类社会已经经历了薪材时期、煤炭时代和石油时代三个能源时期，由于天然气及水电、核电以及其他可再生能源和新能源的兴起，人类社会目前正处在新的能源转变的过程中，世界能源发展已步入一个新的变革时期。由于全球性的能源安全、环境保护和气候变化的需要，使新能源与可再生能源的发展在全球范围内迅速升温，大规模地开发利用新能源与可再生能源也成为世界各国能源发展战略的主流。从世界范围来看，各国学者和政府在进入21世纪后，对新能源与可再生能源的发展给予了高度关注，提出了一系列的政策措施。被誉为“投资风向标”的美国斯蒂芬·李柏（Stephen Leeb）在《即将来临的能源崩溃》（2008）一书中指出，人类即将面临能源崩溃，石油绝对顶峰来临、高通胀一触即发，人类将陷入能源争夺大战。应该建立起发展可替代能源的全球机制，正如20世纪30年代经济大萧条中的巨变一样，实现国际金融危机后的巨变，人们需要建设新型能源设施。2003年，英国政府发布《能源白皮书》，提出，要在市场框架和政策相互影响下，实现能源多样性的发展战略。到2010年，100多个国家制定了与可再生能源发展相关的目标或政策。在过去三年里，许多国家发布了到2020年可再生能源或电力比重实现15%—25%的目标。2010年1月26日，美国总统奥巴马在发表国情咨文演讲时提出，美国将可利用生物燃料来打破对原油的依赖性，在2015年以前成为第一个拥有100万辆电动汽车的国家；在2035年以前通过清洁能源资源来提供80%的电力。2011年3月30日，奥巴马在华盛顿乔治城大学（Georgetown University）就美国能源安全计划发表演讲时更是坦言：“其他国家在大力发展清洁能源，因为他们知道谁领先21世纪的清洁能源技术，谁就带领21世纪的经济。”中国要抓住机遇，迎接挑战，紧跟世界能源发展趋势，及时转变能源发展战略，保证中国能源的可持续发展。基于上述原因，走出能源发展困局，必须研究中国能源发展战略。

简介： Energy is the material base of the human being.According to the law of “from status to contract”，there emerged lots of contracts concerning energy，but the academic research related to this topic were rare.In order to fill up the vacancy of the research of energy contract，I write this paper.The main process of my research is as follows：First，I will find the base and theory accumulation of the connection of energy and contract.Second，I will try to discuss the general rule of the energy contract，including the definition，content，classification etc.Third，I will explain the individual rules of some typical energy contracts.1.The Relationship between Energy and Contract（1） EnergyEnergy is a substance or the motion of a substance which can provide some kinds of energy.We can divide energy into several kinds，such as primary energy and secondary energy；renewable energy and non-renewable energy.Energy has many values including natural value，economic value，security value and ecological value.Although the ecological value is not in priority among the four values，it reflects the coordination of the four different values.（2） ContractDifferent contracts have different meanings，but they all contain two elements，one is that a contract can only be used upon certain kinds of subjects；the other is that a contract bears specific meaning.Contract can be categorized into two types-contracts in law and contract not in law.The contract originated from natural law，developed in positive law，then it experienced the argument of death and reborn.The process tells us that：we should drop the exogenous factor such as freedom，and let the contract come back to its original position.So in my point of view，contract is something that bears certain kinds of relationship and expresses consensus.（3） The demand of the combination of energy and contractThe exploration，development，processing，storage，transaction，service，trading，management of energy all need contract to express consensus.Besides，now there emerged some kinds of energy contracts in many arenas.（4） The theory preparation of the combination of energy and contractWe have to resolve the following question：first，on the premise of the division of public law and private law，the communication of the two kinds of law are closer than before，the overlapping of public law and private law appears frequently today.So the energy contracts can be given the characters of both public law and private law.Second，now the“contract”is taking off its unnecessary attachment，the demand of the spirit“freedom of contract”is not as strong as before，this change reflects that the consensus becomes less important today.So，contract can be setup in energy field，even in this field the public law is in main strain，we can still find the traces of consensus.2.The General Principles（1） The definition of energy contractEnergy contract is the protocol that concerns attribution，exploration，use and protection of the energy resource among the owner，explorer，processor，supplier and user of it.The environment contract is the protocol that concerns the determination and transfer of the environment use right between a country and a citizen or individuals，which can be divided into two kinds-the pollution control contract and the environment utilization and protection contract.The energy contract belongs to the second one and is a special environmental contract.（2） The nature of energy contractEnergy contract is collectiveness which means that one energy contract contains many single contracts and the abstract conception of some concrete contracts.Energy contract has the character of both public law and private law.Under the contract，people can set up various kinds of relationships which come from the energy use.Besides，government may regulate and add some limitation to the energy contract due to the consideration of the public security and the national safety.（3） The principle of energy contractOne principle is keeping the balance of the private right and public right of energy.The second principle is safety goes first，efficiency follows.Safety means the safety of both energy and trade.Efficiency includes the energy efficiency and the contract efficiency.（4） The subject of energy contractThere are three kinds of subjects of energy contract：country，legal person and natural person.It is important for the country to transfer its identity between the nihility and reality.Second，different contracts demand different qualifications for legal person and natural person.（5） The object of energy contractThe object of energy contract is the act of performance which includes the presentation of energy and the presentation of labor service of energy.（6） The content of energy contractThe content of energy contract includes the right and obligation of the litigants，and the specific clause.All these right can be found in the process of exploration，development，processing，storage，transport，service，trading，and management of energy.（7） The form，establishment，come into force and performance of energy contractDifferent contract needs different forms.The establishment of the contract cites but is different from the“offer”and“promise”of the traditional contract.The effective essentials are as same as the traditional contract theory which includes four elements-disposing capacity；real declaration of will，legal content and proper form.The performance of energy contract gives the public oblige some kinds of right for the purpose of contract supervision and guidance.（8） The redress of energy contractThe main way of pursuing redress is litigation，while the non-litigation way is an exception.The cause of it is that the majority subjects of the contract are administrative organizations.It will be unjust if the administrative organizations offer the redress.3.The Specifics of Energy Contract（1） Energy development contractEnergy development contract contains exploration contract and acquisition contract.It is improper to see the process of getting exploration right and acquisition right as an administrative permission.Actually the government is not only the energy manager；there is also consensus between the parties of the contract.Energy exploration contract is the contract between the owner and the explorer of the energy which emphasizes on the primary distribution and the transaction of exploration right.Energy acquisition contract is the contract between the owner and the collectors of the energy which emphasizes on the primary distribution and the transaction of acquisition right.（2） Energy processing contractEnergy processing contract is the contract that the workers do the job in light of the requirements of the customer，deliver the working achievement of energy processing，and the customer pay the rewards.Energy processing contract is different from the undertaking contract in the following aspects：first，the obligation of the worker and the customer；second，the burden of the risk of the energy material，working achievement and rewards；third，arbitrary rescission right of the customer and one party's material breach will lead to the termination of a contract.（3） Energy storage and transportation contractEnergy storage and transportation contract is the general name of energy storage contract and energy transportation contract.This kind of contract has some typical characteristics：first，new ways of storage are emerging as the development and use of new energy such as electric energy，nuclear，etc；second，the conception of modern logistics is entering the field of energy storage.（4） Energy supply contractThe purpose of energy supply contract is to resolve the allocation of the obligation and right between the supplier and the customer of energy.The supply contract can be sorted into two kinds-one is supply contract which service for the tangible energy product while the other kind is energy service contract which is about intangible service of energy.（5） Energy trade contractEnergy trade contract is the contract about the development，sale and service of energy of parties that in different countries.The obligation and right between the foreign company and the host country is in difference.There are two forms of trade contract；one is permission type while the other is contract style.（6） Energy regulation contractEnergy regulation contract is the protocol between the manager and being managed concerning the energy emergency，storage and technology，which contains two kinds of contract-forbidden and limit contract and advocate contract.It is significant to use the contract to regulate the energy use because it can make the obligation and right clear.4.The Conception of Energy Contract and the Methodology of Energy LawThe methodology of energy law can be divided into four kinds：a） the general methodology，which is the thinking of energy law as well as the thinking in light of energy law；b） specific methodology which means individualism methodology，holism methodology，positive analysis methodology and normative analysis methodology；c） general research method，including law philosophy research method，law and economics research method，sociology of law research method，law and history research method etc；and d） specific research method which means one kind of research method on one particular energy law phenomenon.The conception of energy contract can be used as the general methodology and specific methodology due to the following reasons：first，such conception is not only the thinking about the energy law，but also the thinking based on energy law；second，the conception of energy contract is the unity of individualism and holism，the combination of positive analysis and normative analysis. Key words：Energy；Contract；Energy Contract；Methodology

简介： 本书从理论和现实两个角度全面阐述了在中国发展生物质能经济的重要性和必要性问题。首先生物质能的研究开发是自然科学研究的领域，同时，从生物质能研发成功，成为一种可替代传统能源资源的新能源，到形成一种新产业，逐渐产生经济效益，造福人类，成为可持续发展的物质基础，这一过程主要是社会科学研究的重要问题。中国生物质能经济问题既是自然科学研究问题也是社会科学研究的问题，同时起步，交叉进行，互相促进。该书的论述清晰地反映了这一研究的轨迹和特色。

简介： 2010年10月18日，《国务院关于加快培育和发展战略性新兴产业的决定》（国发［2010］32号）将新能源产业作为未来重点支持的七大战略性新兴产业之一，着重从强化科技创新、积极培育市场、深化国际合作、加大财税金融政策扶持力度、推进体制机制创新等方面提出了比较具体的产业扶持政策。在这些政策措施的作用下，我国风电、太阳能等领域已经有了突破性进展。但与此同时，我国新能源产业发展中也暴露出来一系列问题，例如，制造环节发展过快，应用市场相对滞后；技术水平与国外差距依然较大；产能过剩问题愈演愈烈，等等。这些问题阻碍着我国新能源产业的持续健康发展，需要国家进行政策的顶层设计，制定科学合理的政策体系予以支持。近年来，国内已有不少学者就新能源发展战略、市场培育、定价机制、扶持政策等问题做了深入探索，形成了一批有价值的研究成果，为本项目提供了很好的借鉴。与同类研究相比，本项目较为系统、全面，不仅分析了当前国内外新能源产业发展现状与存在的问题，而且还对新能源产业发展路径、目标以及国内外相关政策进行了较为全面的研究。本书是我主持的2011年度国家社会科学基金重大项目“促进新能源产业发展的政策措施体系及其比较研究”的最终研究成果。从研究内容上看，分为三个部分，共分17章。“上篇”主要针对新能源产业的发展态势、趋势和问题等实际现状进行深入研究。“中篇”以未来的发展趋势为视角，在对中国新能源产业研究的基础上，结合国家对新能源产业发展的最新规划精神，提出中国新能源产业发展的战略目标、优先次序、技术路线与发展模式。“下篇”则在产业分析的基础上，重点研究如何对中国新能源产业发展给予政策支持，从财政、税收、外贸、金融等各个角度出发构建完整的政策支持体系。本研究分析总结了我国新能源发展中存在的如下问题：（1）受短期投机利益吸引，催生产业规模过快扩张，进而在产业成长期出现过剩产能问题，整体上看产业发展的基础不牢固；（2）产业发展的核心技术缺失，导致国际竞争力不强，技术创新能力亟待提升；（3）国内产业链发展不平衡，导致在国际市场波动和国际贸易保护主义抬头的情况下，国内产业受到严重冲击；（4）新能源产业的发展不仅面临着原料供给约束和技术约束，还受到市场成长的约束，以光伏和新能源汽车为典型；（5）在风电、光伏和生物质发电等新能源产业发展中，电网规划和建设滞后是制约新能源产业健康发展的重要因素，如何在保障电网安全的情况下协调具有不同品质的新能源电力成为亟须解决的重大难题；（6）新能源汽车还处于发展初期，技术路线存在很大的不确定性，且尚未形成较理想的运营模式；（7）新能源资源丰富区与电力负荷中心错位分布，在可预期的地区电力需求和电网送出通道成长趋势下，新能源区域电力消纳能力较小成为制约新能源产业快速发展的重要因素；（8）在既有政府政绩评价背景下，地方政府主导的新能源产业发展呈现突出的市场份额和地方行政垄断特征，在很大程度上制约新能源产业的市场竞争和政策“扶优劣汰”作用的发挥；（9）新能源产业发展的政策支撑体系不健全、政策连续性不强等问题制约新能源产业的持续健康发展，等等。我国新能源产业政策存在的问题主要有：（1）产业标准制定相对滞后，且既有标准也存在执行与监管不严格的问题，导致落后产能不能及时被清理出行业，大大延缓产业整合步伐；（2）补贴政策存在标准“一刀切”，范围有限，环节和水平不当，以及可操作性和可延续性不佳等问题，制约了新能源产业投资合理化、竞争多元化、风险最小化的发展路径；（3）新能源消纳政策机制缺乏，导致新能源电力和新能源汽车市场容量有限，产业成长受到较大约束；（4）在国际环境中，新能源产品国际贸易规则和问题解决机制存在局限性，导致新能源产业发展中的国际贸易争端频发；（5）新能源技术创新政策不健全，政策实施效率不高，共性技术供给机制尚未形成，导致我国新能源产业技术创新生态系统建设滞后，联合创新水平较低；（6）税收政策存在优惠方式单一、缺乏系统性等问题，而且现有的新能源政策支持资金来源存在资金总量不足、分配不公的福利效应，以及征管不积极等问题；（7）在上网电价政策机制方面，则存在电价水平和执行时间的合理性问题，以及电价水平调整的动态性问题等；（8）新能源产业融资渠道狭窄，缺乏风险投资和资本市场开放度不足，部分行业和环节存在市场垄断问题等。总之，本项研究认为，尽管近年来我国新能源产业已有长足发展，但总体上依然属于典型的幼稚型产业，为了促进我国新能源产业的健康发展，需要制定合理的政策体系加以引导和支撑。针对我国新能源发展中存在的问题，以及既有新能源产业政策存在的不足，我们的对策建议：（1）因地制宜、因时制宜地制定新能源产业发展规划，将新能源产业及其辅助产业均纳入规划范围，尤其要注重新能源电力发展与电网发展，乃至区域市场消纳能力发展之间的协调性，以及新能源汽车发展与相应基础设施发展的平衡性；（2）加大研发支持力度，拓宽研发支持范围，按新能源技术的成长阶段进行差别性的支持力度设计，加快具有自主知识产权的技术和产品创新，引导共性技术创新系统和平台建设；（3）加快新能源应用市场培育，支撑上游产品的生产，打破地方行政垄断造成的市场分割，激活市场优胜劣汰作用机制的同时，拓宽企业的市场选择范围；（4）结合国内新能源产品应用市场特征，加快产业和产品标准的制定，引导企业之间的竞争从价格向质量变迁，核心是重生产和产出质量，轻进入门槛；（5）拓宽政策的支持范围，激活市场的竞争机制，避免由政策直接选择市场“赢家”，尤其要对创新型中小企业给予特殊的扶持政策，加强市场的竞争水平，激励企业不断创新；（6）综合考虑区域差异、价格水平、执行时限和调整机制等因素，对不同区域的不同新能源电力制定差异化的上网电价机制，实现上网电价的动态调整和可预测性，有效降低政策造成的企业风险；（7）将投资补贴从生产环节向研发环节和消费环节转移，避免国际贸易争端，积极拓宽新能源企业，尤其是中小新能源企业的融资渠道。此外，各种政策机制的制定和执行均需要配套的监督机制，以及后期的效果评价机制。考虑到新能源产业发展是一个系统工程，涉及领域较广，在2011年立项之初，我特别邀请了国家电网能源研究院、国家发改委能源所、中科院电工所等对新能源产业应用领域有特殊研究专长的优秀人才加入到课题组。课题于2013年结项，取得了比较丰富的阶段性成果，其中，通过《中国社会科学院要报》向国办报送政策咨询报告13份，其中3份得到国务院总理和副总理的批示。在学术期刊发表论文27篇。所发表的内部研究报告和论文产生了一定的影响，为我国制定和完善新能源产业政策提供了科学依据，丰富了新能源产业政策的研究内容。课题研究的总体思路和基本框架由我负责设计，并对各章研究提出了具体要求和修改意见，对全书书稿进行了修改和审定。各章的分工如下：第1章、第17章，史丹、王蕾；第2章、第3章，杨帅；第4章，马翠萍；第5章、第6章、第7章、第10章、第16章，李琼慧、谢国辉、曹石亚、王乾坤、汪晓露、黄碧斌、史丹、蒋莉萍；第8章，李鹏飞；第9章、第15章，杨丹辉；第11章，贺俊、赵剑波、王钦；第12章，夏先良；第13章，史丹、何淑彪、夏晓华；第14章，何辉。杨帅对研究报告进行了编辑。为了深入了解我国新能源产业发展现状与存在的问题，本课题组曾赴呼和浩特、鄂尔多斯、包头、四平、山西等地进行实地调研，并多次召开课题组研讨会。此外，针对课题研究中发现的政策难点，曾邀请国家能源局、商务部等有关部门专家进行指导，听取各方面专家的意见。在此，感谢课题组成员的共同努力，感谢有关地区和部门的领导和专家为本课题研究提供的支持和帮助。由于时间和水平有限，必有诸多不足。希望学界同仁能够提出宝贵意见，并欢迎指正。史丹2014年10月18日

简介： 中国能源发展面临能源安全、全球气候变化和化石能源日益枯竭的挑战，加快可再生能源发展已经刻不容缓。近年来，中国能源结构不断改善，天然气等清洁能源比重不断上升。2014年，中国能源消费结构为煤炭占66.0%，石油占17.1%，天然气占5.7%，水电、核电、风电等其他能源占11.7%。尽管如此，中国能源消费结构仍然以煤炭为主，能源消费数量巨大，造成国内环境污染，特别是大气污染等严重问题。中国的碳排放量占全球碳排放总量的28%，人均碳排放量已超过欧盟，中国的二氧化碳排放总量正在超越欧美的总和。治理雾霾和减少碳排放等环境问题，迫切需要加快发展可再生能源，调整能源消费结构。大力发展可再生能源，调整能源结构是中国能源发展面临的重要任务之一，也是保证中国能源安全的重要组成部分。加快推进中国能源结构的战略性调整，优化能源消费结构，治理污染减少碳排放，促进中国未来能源发展，必须降低煤炭消费比重，提高天然气消费比重，大力发展风电、太阳能、生物质能、地热能等可再生能源，安全发展核电。从世界能源发展趋势看，各种新能源和可再生能源的开发利用引人注目，水电、核电、太阳能、风能、生物质能、地热能、海洋能等新能源和可再生能源的开发利用最为迅速。中国未来能源发展要在坚持集中式与分布式并重、集中送出与就地消纳相结合，加快发展风电和光伏发电；扎实推进地热能、生物质能发展；在采用国际最高安全标准、确保安全的前提下，稳步推进核电建设。到2020年，中国在单位国内生产总值二氧化碳排放比2005年下降40%—45%，中国非化石能源占能源消费总量比重达到15%，天然气比重达到10%以上，煤炭消费比重控制在62%以内。到2030年左右，二氧化碳排放达到峰值且将努力早日达峰，并计划到2030年非化石能源占一次能源消费的比重提高到20%左右。工业革命与能源发展息息相关。第一次工业革命不仅在于蒸汽机的发明，还在于英国得天独厚的煤炭资源以及率先进行的“能源革命”。第二次工业革命开启了“电气时代”，使电力在工业领域取代蒸汽成为主导能源，内燃机的发明推动了石油开采和重化工业的繁荣。面对全球气候变化、传统化石能源日益紧缺、经济增长乏力等诸多危机，2011年，美国经济学家杰里米·里夫金在《第三次工业革命》一书中提出，以新能源为核心进行一次工业革命即“第三次工业革命”。据联合国秘书长潘基文推算，到2030年，将有30%的传统能源被新能源替代。他相信，到2035年，全球将有50%的传统能源被新能源替代。新能源技术的产生和应用，逐渐替代传统化石能源，将导致新的技术革命的产生，引发新的工业革命。能源生产和消费革命将引领第三次工业革命。新能源技术也将成为人类赖以生存的核心技术，新能源产业很有可能成为继信息技术后带动全球经济复苏的“新技术革命”的核心内容，成为世界新的经济增长点。第三次工业革命将推动一批新兴产业诞生，掀起社会生产方式、制造模式甚至生产组织方式等方面的重要变革，从根本上重塑社会经济关系，深刻影响人类的商业行为、社会管理体系、教育体系和生活方式，使人类进入生态和谐、绿色低碳、可持续发展的社会。面对第三次工业革命的挑战和机遇，世界各国跃跃欲试。而国内出现大范围雾霾和水域污染，传统制造业利润下滑，高能耗、高污染产业发展难以为继，中国亟须进行一场清洁化和低碳化的能源革命，转变经济发展方式。未来中国经济发展要紧紧抓住能源生产与消费革命契机，加快生态文明建设，弘扬“天人合一”、人与自然和谐相处的优秀传统文化，推进新能源的技术创新与发展，在第三次工业革命中，加快推进产业结构转型升级，在全球新能源发展竞争中取得主导地位，以能源革命引领新的工业革命，成为第三次工业革命的引领者。基于上述，中国在大力发展可再生能源的同时，必须加快对可再生能源发展的理论和政策研究。这些研究主要包括可再生能源发展趋势；可再生能源发展战略；可再生能源发展规划；可再生能源电力价格政策；可再生能源产业政策；可再生能源发展的激励政策等内容。本书则主要对可再生能源发展的补贴政策和机制进行研究。本书研究内容主要包括四大部分：一是对可再生能源电力价格补贴政策的研究；二是对可再生能源设备补贴政策的研究；三是对可再生能源补贴进入与退出机制的研究；四是对可再生能源国际贸易争端协调机制的研究。本书试图通过对可再生能源发展补贴政策与机制的深入研究，提出对中国可再生能源整体发展具有理论和实践价值的政策建议。

简介： 当前，由过度碳排放带来的大气环境污染问题已经逐渐引起国际社会的广泛关注，因为环境污染问题会涉及社会生产、居民生活等各个领域，所以，它不仅会影响各国未来经济的发展及当前经济发展模式的选择，同样也会影响到世界各国的政策选择，以及经济利益格局的分配。从世界各国经济发展情况来看，大多呈现明显的阶段性特征。在不同的经济发展阶段，国民经济中的主导产业不同，而主导产业的生产与发展又直接影响一次能源消费量与碳排放水平。能源的不断更替和变革是人类社会不断发展的重要标志，在推动经济增长和促进经济发展的同时，产生大量碳排放，对自然环境造成污染，加剧气候变化。更为重要的是，当前国际传统能源储备和环境承载能力有限，无法持续支持当前经济增长模式。因此，在产业结构演变视角下，研究发达国家与发展中国家能源消费与碳排放控制问题具有重要意义。碳排放主要受能源消费影响，而能源消费又决定于经济增长下的产业结构。全球经济社会的持续健康发展，需要开发出可替代的新能源，这些主要的新能源核心技术都集中于经济发达国家。同时，主要发达国家已走过工业化时期，现处于以第三产业为主的后工业化时期，第三产业碳排放低，有的行业甚至是零碳排放。这样